With less than six months to go before the 2026 World Cup kicks off, organisers are bracing for what could be their most challenging opponent yet: extreme heat.
Soaring temperatures across the United States, Mexico and Canada pose safety issues for players and fans and a host of logistical issues that remain far from settled.
In the depths of the $5.5 billion SoFi Stadium in Los Angeles, which will host eight World cup matches, around 15 industrial misting fans more than two metres sit in storage, waiting to be deployed. If temperatures climb above 80F (26.7C), the fans will be rolled out around the stadium.
A roof suspended some 45 metres above the SoFi Stadium pitch offers some shade for spectators, while large openings along the sides of the stadium allow for breezes from the nearby Pacific Ocean to provide a form of natural air conditioning.
"Knowing that you can put 70 000 people into a building, the energy, the excitement, the activity that comes with that, and the higher temperature, that's where we want to make sure we respond," Otto Benedict, vice president of operations for the company that manages the stadium, told AFP.
Not all of the World Cup's 16 stadiums are as modern. And Southern California is not considered to be among the highest-risk areas for a competition scheduled from 11 June to 19 July, three-and-a-half years after a winter World Cup in Qatar.
AUTOMATIC COOLING BREAKS
A study published in the International Journal of Biometeorology in January warned of "serious concern" for the health of players and match officials at the 2026 World Cup due to extreme heat.
The study identified six "high-risk" host cities: Monterrey, Miami, Kansas City, Boston, New York and Philadelphia.
The "Pitches in Peril" report by the Football for Future non-profit noted that in 2025 those cities each recorded at least one day above 35C on the wet-bulb globe temperature (WBGT) scale, which factors in humidity and is considered the upper limit of human heat tolerance.
The issue of heat featured prominently at this year's FIFA Club World Cup in the United States, which drew complaints from players and coaches.
Extreme heat also marked the 1994 World Cup, the last men's edition held in the United States.
FIFA has responded by mandating cooling breaks in the 22nd and 67th minutes of all matches at the World Cup, regardless of conditions.
The World Cup match schedule released after December's draw in Washington shows daytime games largely assigned to air-conditioned stadiums in Dallas, Houston, and Atlanta, while higher-risk venues are set to host evening kickoffs.
"You can clearly see an effort to align the competition schedule planning and venue selection with the concerns around player health, but also player performance," a spokesperson for the FIFPro players union told AFP. "This is a clear outcome, which we welcome, and a lesson learned from the Club World Cup."
'HIGH-RISK MATCHES'
FIFPRO says the biggest takeaway is that heat will play an increasingly central role in organising competitions on a warming planet.
The union believes though that several World Cup fixtures remain "high-risk" and recommends postponements when WBGT readings exceed 28C.
Among those fixtures causing FIFPro concern: group-stage matches scheduled for mid-afternoon in New York, Boston and Philadelphia, as well as the final, set for a 3pm kickoff in New York.
While teams and players work to mitigate effects of the conditions, some officials say the risks to spectators both inside stadiums and in fan zones have been underestimated.
"There is a risk and importantly, we feel like it's an underappreciated risk," said Chris Fuhrmann, deputy director of the Southeast Regional Centre of the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
"When you're cheering, you're actually generating a lot of metabolic heat and your heart rate's going up. Spectators obviously compared to professional athletes are generally not in as good physical health.
"They have a lot of comorbidities that increase the likelihood that they would have a negative health outcome or succumb to heat stress."
Stadium temperatures are also amplified by the "urban heat island" effect of concrete, asphalt and metal.
Adequate air circulation, plenty of shaded areas and access to hydration are crucial, Fuhrmann said – though hydration is often undermined by alcohol consumption.
FIFA has yet to clarify whether fans will be allowed to bring refillable water bottles into venues or whether water will be sold inside. FIFA did not respond to requests for comment.
PREVENTION
For National Weather Service meteorologist Benjamin Schott, who has advised FIFA and its World Cup task force, the priority is prevention, particularly for foreign visitors unfamiliar with local climates.
Another lesson from the Club World Cup, he said, is the need for multilingual messaging to ensure heat-safety warnings are clearly understood.
"The lesson learned is just trying to maybe better educate fans as they come to the United States to have a better understanding of what the weather could be like during those two months," Schott said.